God’s Sovereignty and Human Responsibility: Part I

The Apostle Paul expresses his profound desire and prayer for the salvation of the people of Israel, acknowledging their zeal for God while noting its misdirection: “Brothers and sisters, my heart’s desire and prayed to God for the Israelites is that they may be saved. For I can testify about them that they are zealous for God, but their zeal is not based on knowledge. Since they did not know the righteousness of God and sought to establish their own, they did not submit to God’s righteousness. Christ is the culmination of the law so that there may be righteousness for everyone who believes” (Romans 10:1-4 NLT).

Upon undertaking this study, it became evident that the topic of Jewish and Gentile salvation necessitates an exhaustive examination. While there is considerable debate regarding their categorization as separate entities, it is argued here that they are not distinct, given that Jesus Christ is presented as the Jewish Messiah first and then the Gentile Messiah. This is affirmed in scripture:

“For I am not ashamed of the gospel, because it is the power of God that brings salvation to everyone who believes: first to the Jew, then to the Gentile” (Romans 1:16 NIV).

Furthermore, this order is also presented in the context of judgment:

“But for those who are self-seeking and who reject the truth and follow evil, there will be wrath and anger. There will be trouble and distress for every human being who does evil: first for the Jew, then for the Gentile” (Romans 2:8-9 NIV).

In this passage, “truth” likely refers to the gospel message or the truth about God (cf. Romans 1:18). “Unrighteousness” denotes the sins enumerated in Romans 1:28–31. The coupling of “wrath” and “anger” intensifies the concept of God’s punishment for the wicked, contrasting with the “eternal life” granted to the obedient (Romans 2:7). The term “affliction” (thlipsis) may refer to suffering resulting from condemnation on the Day of Wrath. The phrase “Jew first and of the Greek” (Romans 2:9) reiterates the priority given to Jews in blessing (cf. Romans 9:4) as the first people group God personally visited and claimed as His own. Consequently, this priority extends to judgment. Conversely, “peace” (eirēnē) in Romans 2:10 refers to the perfect well-being derived from God’s righteous work through Christ. While Jews receive priority in judgment, they also receive priority in reward. The concept of “partiality” (prosōpolēmpsia) in Romans 2:11 describes unfair distinctions and preferential treatment. God demonstrates no partiality (Deuteronomy 10:17; Acts 10:34–35), judging both Jews and Gentiles on the same basis: according to their works (cf. Romans 2:6). Paul endeavors to persuade certain Jews that their sinful actions will not be overlooked solely due to their ethnicity.

Extensive research underscores the critical necessity for both Jews and Gentiles to embrace a saving faith in Jesus Christ, the world’s Messiah. Salvation, in this perspective, is exclusively through Jesus. Both Old Testament and New Testament believers were, and are, saved by faith in Israel’s Messiah. Jews who have faith are saved, but not apart from faith. As Warren Gage, PhD, aptly notes, “Paul said the promises made to Abraham were made to his seed and that the seed was Christ. Keeping that in mind spares much confusion.” Consequently, “Whoever denies the Son does not have the Father; the one who confesses the Son has the Father also” (1 John 2:23). This passage affirms that those who confess the Son also possess the Father (cf. 1 John 5:13; John 14:6; Acts 4:12; John 3:18). This perspective maintains that world religions do not constitute “many paths to the one God,” as all except Christianity refuse to confess Jesus as God’s Son (cf. 1 John 4:3, 4:15).

The declaration in Romans 11:26, “and so all Israel will be saved; just as it is written, ‘THE DELIVERER WILL COME FROM ZION, HE WILL REMOVE UNGODLINESS FROM JACOB,'” has generated considerable scholarly debate. Paul’s use of “so” (οὕτως) is often interpreted as referring to the preceding context, implying “in this way”—that is, through the divinely ordained process whereby the partial hardening of Israel led to Gentile salvation, a temporary hardening lasting until “the fullness of the Gentiles” has entered (Moo, 1996, p. 649-650). Alternatively, “so” can refer to what follows (e.g., Romans 10:6; 1 Corinthians 3:15), suggesting that all Israel will be saved when the Redeemer comes to Zion (Cranfield, 1998, p. 76-77). While the latter is not impossible, the former interpretation is generally favored.

The phrase “all Israel” is widely understood to refer to the nation as a whole, rather than every individual Israelite without exception. This usage is consistent with the Old Testament (1 Samuel 12:1; 2 Chronicles 12:1; Daniel 9:11). A passage in the Mishnah (Sanh. 10:1) is particularly illustrative, stating that “All Israelites have a share in the world to come” but then listing numerous exceptions, including those who deny the resurrection or specific individuals like Jeroboam and Balaam. This clearly indicates that “all Israel” denotes the collective people while allowing for exceptions.

Some exegetes interpret “Israel” as referring to the nation, while others, like Calvin, understand it as “spiritual Israel,” encompassing both Jewish and Gentile believers (Schreiner, 1998, p. 534-535). Lenski argues for the elect Jews. However, the decisive point appears to be that “Israel” in Romans 11:25 clearly refers to the physical nation (it is physical Israel, not spiritual Israel, that is hardened in part). It would be inconsistent for its meaning to shift in the subsequent line (Hodge provides a strong argument for this position). Furthermore, Paul introduces this as a “mystery.” The salvation of all the elect, both Jews and Gentiles, is not a mystery, nor is the sporadic conversion of a few Jews in each generation. Such a “mystery” suggests a far more significant event. It can also be argued that Paul anticipates the restoration of the Jews in the same sense in which they were previously rejected, i.e., the nation generally. Paul, therefore, affirms that the nation of Israel as a whole will ultimately receive its place in God’s salvation. This event may be located in the end times as part of Paul’s anticipated eschatological program. However, if “all Israel” encompasses more than one generation, its fulfillment would occur earlier (Faithlife Study Bible).

Ultimately, “For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life” (John 3:16 NIV).

The promise God made to Abraham regarding the “seed” of salvation is elucidated in Galatians 3:29: “If you belong to Christ, then you are Abraham’s seed, and heirs according to the promise” (NIV). This implies that if one does not belong to Christ, they are not Abraham’s offspring in this redemptive sense. Paul’s main argument here is that belonging to Christ integrates individuals into Abraham’s family, thereby negating the need for circumcision to become part of God’s people.

The Abrahamic promise is often misinterpreted to suggest that God automatically saves the Jewish people, regardless of their belief in Christ. This is a doctrinal error, as the requirement of faith in Christ applies equally to Gentiles. Jewish people are not saved from their sins by their ethnicity alone, nor are they saved outside of faith in Christ. This false doctrine is regrettably common within some segments of the church and is often assumed to be true by a significant portion of the Jewish people. Jesus unequivocally stated, “I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me” (John 14:6 NIV).

John 14:6 presents Jesus as the exclusive path to the Father, fulfilling Old Testament symbols and teachings that underscore God’s exclusiveness, such as the curtain (Exodus 26:33) restricting access to God’s presence to only the Levitical high priest (Leviticus 16), the rejection of human inventions for approaching God (Leviticus 10:2), and the divine selection of Aaron alone to represent Israel before God in the sanctuary (Numbers 17:5). Jesus is the sole “way” to God (Acts 4:12), uniquely providing access. As “the truth,” Jesus fulfills Old Testament teaching (John 1:17) and reveals the true God (cf. John 1:14, 17; 5:33; 18:37; also 8:40, 45–46; 14:9). As “the life,” Jesus fulfills Old Testament promises of God-given “life” (John 11:25–26), possessing life in Himself (John 1:4; 5:26), and thus able to bestow eternal life upon all who believe (e.g., John 3:16). This “I AM” statement further asserts His deity (cf. John 6:35).

Furthermore, God “wants all people to be saved and to come to a knowledge of the truth” (1 Timothy 2:4 NIV). This desire underpins evangelistic prayer for all humanity. Paul appears to be countering an exclusivist tendency among false teachers or their deemphasis on Gentile evangelism, coupled with their emphasis on the Jewish law. While this statement is central to theological debates concerning the extent of the atonement, it cannot imply universalism (that everyone will be saved), as other parts of the letter clearly indicate that some will not be saved (1 Timothy 4:1; 5:24; 6:10; cf. Matthew 25:30, 41, 46; Revelation 14:9–11). The question arises whether God desires something (universal salvation) that He cannot fulfill. Both Arminian and Calvinist theologians propose that God’s “desire” for universal salvation is balanced by other, greater desires. Arminians contend that God’s greater desire is to preserve genuine human freedom (essential for genuine love), which necessitates allowing some to reject His offer of salvation. Calvinists argue that God’s greater desire is to fully display His glory (Romans 9:22–23), resulting in election based on the freedom of His mercy, not human choice (Romans 9:15–18). Regardless of how one understands the extent of the atonement, 1 Timothy 2:4 unequivocally teaches the free and universal offer of the gospel to every human being, demonstrating God’s genuine goodwill. “Coming to the knowledge of the truth” highlights the cognitive aspect of conversion, requiring individuals to comprehend key truths for conversion. “The truth” frequently functions as a synonym for the gospel in the Pastoral Epistles.

The Abrahamic Covenant and The Dispensation of Promise

Nine generations after Shem, Abraham was born. Approximately 75 years old and residing in Ur of the Chaldees, Abraham received a divine call. Through His abundant grace, God initiated another covenant with humanity, choosing Abraham as His partner. This covenant was unconditional and replete with promises (Genesis 12:1-3). The sole apparent condition was Abraham’s instruction to leave his home and family and journey to a land God would reveal. Upon Abraham’s obedience and entry into the promised land, the promises became steadfast. God promised:

1. To make Abraham a great nation (Genesis 12:2). This promise has been fulfilled both physically, through Isaac and Ishmael, and spiritually, through all who share Abraham’s faith (Galatians 3:7).
2. To bless him (Genesis 12:2), which occurred both physically (Genesis 13:14-18) and spiritually (Genesis 15:6).
3. To make his name great (Genesis 12:2). To this day, Abraham’s name is known and revered by millions.
4. To make him a blessing to others (Genesis 12:2). Abraham blessed individuals in his own time and extended blessing to humanity through his descendant, Jesus Christ.
5. To bless those who bless him (Genesis 12:3).
6. To curse those who curse him (Genesis 12:3). God has not only blessed those who blessed Abraham but also those who blessed the nation descended from him, Israel. Conversely, nations that cursed Israel (e.g., Babylon, Assyria, Rome, Germany) have suffered. While some consequences have already manifested, these promises will reach full fruition in the future.
7. To bless all the families of the earth through him (Genesis 12:3). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise is Christ Himself, who bestows salvation upon all who believe in Him and will physically bless all who participate in the millennium.

Although this covenant is unconditional, its application is not universal. Doctrinally, it primarily applies to the Hebrew lineage through Isaac and Jacob (Israel). Gentiles can participate in this covenant only by receiving Abraham’s promised Seed—Jesus Christ. Those who refuse Him, whether Jew or Gentile, will face His judgment.

Similar to the Noahic Covenant, the Abrahamic Covenant has a sign: circumcision (Genesis 17:9-14). Circumcision served as a token of the promises God made to Abraham and his descendants. Refusal or neglect of this sign resulted in being cut off from his people and the covenant promises (excommunication). Circumcision was Abraham and his people’s sole obligation under this covenant. By performing it in faith, they gained full access to all the promises. God reconfirmed this covenant in Genesis 15 after Abraham “believed in the Lord” (Genesis 15:6) and sought further details.

After Abraham presented five offerings as commanded by God, the Lord again affirmed the covenant, revealing that Abraham’s descendants would be strangers in a land (Egypt) and afflicted for 400 years. God also revealed the precise boundaries of the land promised to Abraham. Significantly, God promised all of this to Abraham while he was asleep, further demonstrating the unconditional nature of the covenant. God reconfirmed the covenant once more after Abraham passed the severe but revealing test of offering Isaac (Genesis 22:15-18).

Another crucial aspect of this covenant is its apparent perpetual nature. It extends beyond the Millennium and the renovation of the earth, even past the New Heaven and New Earth. Consequently, the nation of Israel, governed by its Messiah and King, will persist into eternity. The period initiated by this covenant is termed the Dispensation of Promise for evident reasons. For the first time, God made promises exclusively to one group of people. From Abraham onward in the Old Testament, the only way a non-Israelite could partake in these promises was by becoming an Israelite (e.g., Ruth 1:16). Currently, the only way is to receive Jesus Christ. Some scholars refer to this period as the Dispensation of the Family because God communicated all His revelations to humanity through this single family.

The promises made to Abraham were reconfirmed to his son Isaac, his grandson Jacob, and subsequently to Jacob’s sons, the heads of the twelve tribes of Israel. The expected conduct during this dispensation largely mirrored the preceding ones, with the added directive for Abraham to go to and remain in a specific land (Canaan). Although Abraham obeyed by going to the land, he fled to Egypt for food when famine and hardship arose, indicating a lack of complete trust in God to sustain him there. This again illustrates humanity’s weakness and failure to adhere to God’s requirements. In every dispensation, humanity, in some manner, fails to uphold God’s word and consequently incurs judgment.

Moreover, the character of Abraham’s descendants progressively degenerated. While Abraham exhibited fear and lied about Sarah in Egypt (Genesis 12:10-20), Isaac appeared to lie with greater ease (Genesis 26:7). Jacob, whose name means “Deceiver” or “Supplanter,” demonstrated even more blatant sin, lying, deceiving, tricking, and scheming seemingly without hesitation (Genesis 27:6-29). Similarly, his sons (with the notable exception of Joseph) were further entangled in vice and evil, engaging in acts ranging from adultery with handmaids and harlots to murder and kidnapping (Genesis 34:25, 37:23-36, 38:12-18). The actions of all involved, from Abraham onward, and the moral decline of the family’s character in successive generations, led God to send Abraham’s descendants into Egypt and subsequently into bondage. This dispensation, from the call of Abraham to the exodus from Egypt, spanned 430 years (Morton).

Bibliography

Cranfield, C. E. B. (1998). On Romans: And Other New Testament Essays. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. Mathews, K. A. (2005). Genesis 11:27–50:26. Vol. 1B. Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers. Moo, D. J. (1996). The Epistle to the Romans. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. Schreiner, T. R. (1998). Romans. Vol. 6. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books.